Lit Review · claude-sonnet-5-5

Introduction: Regenerative Agriculture in the Literature There are many ecological impacts of industrial agriculture. A review of these impacts motivated researchers to study different ways of agricultural production. One framework is regenerative agriculture. Traditionally, agriculture has mostly focused on damage reduction. However, regenerative agriculture is focused on restorative practices to improve the environment. Regenerative agriculture has gained popularity in the last decade. Research has mostly focused on large-scale commercial farming. However, there is more limited research on small-to-medium scale farming (less than 20 hectares). Scholars do not agree on an exact definition of regenerative agriculture. One frame work is that regenerative agriculture is made up of set of goals aimed at different farm ecology, biodiversity, and soil health. Some examples of practices that accomplish these goals are no-till practices, cover cropping, and other farming rotations. Because there is not one standard definition of regenerative agriculture, some scholars argue the field lacks ecological standards. It is important to study this field to gain more ecological standards. Small-scale systems merit attention in this context. The world’s poorest regions rely on smallholder and family farming for the bulk of their food production (Lowder et al., 2016). Smallholder systems are often good candidates for agriculture based on the principles of regeneration. Adopters of regenerative agriculture at the farm level are positioned to enhance land management at the farm level through various means, including traditional ecological practices. Smallholders, however, face several constraints including high labor requirements, meager working capital, and inadequate land and market access. Constraints of these kinds may negatively affect the profitability and competitiveness of smallholder producers adopting regenerative agriculture. This paper reviews small-scale regenerative agriculture. It is organized into three main sections. The first section looks at the ecology of regenerative agriculture. The second section examines the social aspect of regenerative practices and the knowledge systems of farms and communities. The last section of the paper looks at barriers to the adoption of regenerative practices.

Introduction: Small-Scale Regenerative Agriculture in the Literature Regenerative agriculture (RA) has become of interest to researchers and practitioners looking for alternatives to industrial agriculture, which, though yielding significant productivity gains over the last century, has done so at significant ecological costs (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). Some of these costs include soil erosion and loss of soil organic matter, biodiversity loss, pollution of fresh water systems, and greenhouse gas emissions (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). Though there is not one agreed-upon definition of RA in the research literature, it is widely characterized as a suite of agriculture practices oriented toward outcomes like improved soil health, increased biodiversity, enhanced water cycling, and greater resilience to climatic and economic shocks (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). These outcomes may be achieved through practices like cover cropping, no- or low-till agriculture, diverse crop rotations, composting, agroforestry, and managed or rotational grazing. Though there is widespread support for these goals, there is debate around the definition of RA and calls for more attention to outcomes; RA risks becoming little more than a marketing label divorced of any measurable outcomes (Giller et al., 2021). This review looks at RA on small-scale farms. These can take many different forms, but they may be defined as farms and market gardens operated by smallholders. These farms, generally less than twenty hectares, make up a large share of the world’s food production, particularly in the Global South (Lowder et al., 2016). There is widespread recognition that the goals of RA are well-suited to the challenges and goals of smallholder agriculture. Many regenerative practices are a good fit with smallholder agriculture given the necessity of labor-intensive techniques and diversified cropping systems. Other strengths of smallholder agriculture that could facilitate successful RA include flexibility of management, keen local observation, and traditional ecological knowledge. At the same time, common challenges in smallholder agriculture like insecure land tenure, limited access to capital, limited market access, and the challenges of intensive labor could impede adoption. There may be cases in which regenerative practices may prove to be less economically viable in smallholder contexts, at least during transitional periods. This review examines existing literature about RA on smallholder and small-scale farms to clarify what we do and do not know about RA in this context, what is widely agreed upon and what is up for debate, and where more research is needed. It looks at research examining RA’s ecological, socioeconomic, and adoption outcomes in order to determine whether RA is achieving its intended outcomes. In doing so, it considers research about RA’s impacts on soil carbon sequestration and other aspects of soil health, biodiversity, agricultural yields, profitability, livelihoods and well-being, and community and social networks. It also examines facilitators of adoption and structural and other challenges that small-scale producers may face when implementing RA practices. In considering these topics, the review will draw out where there are common threads in the literature and where there are methodological challenges and gaps in the research, particularly a dearth of studies that focus on small-scale RA over longer periods of time.

# Introduction: Small-Scale Regenerative Agriculture in the Literature In order to achieve food security while minimizing environmental impacts, new agriculture production systems are needed. Although there has been considerable progress in increasing the production of crops per ha over the past century (Roberts, 1982), agriculture has a number of negative environmental consequences, including soil erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, decline in agricultural biodiversity, contamination of freshwater resources and the contribution of agriculture to greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2006; Fitzgerald, 2003; Foley et al., 2011; Monteith, 2000; Montgomery, 2007). The term of regenerative agriculture has not yet been fixed to a single definition. In general, regenerative agriculture refers to a set of agricultural practices that aim to regenerate ecosystem services. These practices can be characterized by their goal of increasing soil health, enhancing biodiversity, preserving water resources, and increasing agricultural resilience. Common agricultural practices used in regenerative agriculture are cover cropping, no- or reduced-till agriculture, crop rotation, composting, agroforestry, and managed rotational grazing (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). Even if more and more farmers apply these practices, critics doubt whether regenerative agriculture is more than a label to market products that have ecological benefits (Giller et al., 2021). Therefore, an empirical assessment of the evidence is necessary. When discussing agriculture on small scales, it is essential to recognize the contribution that smallholders and small farms make to global food production, particularly in regions of the Global South (Lowder et al., 2016). Often farming in diverse, resource-dependent ways with high levels of labor input, small-scale farmers can easily adapt to the requirements of agriculture that is regenerative in orientation and utilize their existing experience and knowledge of ecosystems. However, small-scale farmers experience a number of constraints, including lack of capital, insecurity of tenure, limited market access, and high labor requirements during the transition period. The review focuses on three main themes relating to small-scale regenerative agriculture: ecological outcomes, socioeconomic aspects, and obstacles to implementation. For the ecological aspects, studies were selected that discuss effects on soil carbon, biodiversity and yield of small-scale regenerative agriculture. For the socioeconomic aspects, studies were selected that discuss aspects of profitability of regenerative agriculture as well as the impact on livelihoods of farmers and their knowledge networks. Finally, for the obstacles to implementation, studies were selected that analyze the institutional and structural conditions that affect the adoption of different types of agriculture. The review also highlights methodological limitations and research gaps, especially with regard to long-term studies on small-scale agriculture. **Word count: ~400**

Industrial agriculture has seen dramatic gains in yield per unit area per year during the last century, but its environmental damage is now impossible to ignore. Degradation of the natural environment from agricultural practices, including loss of biodiversity and organic matter in soils, threatens agricultural production potential, water quality, and greenhouse gas emissions (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). Regenerative agriculture has been proposed as a new paradigm, one that promises to restore, rather than destroy, the landscape. While the practice has been implemented on large scales with varied success, its use on smaller scales, in farms and market gardens of less than twenty hectares, is still under scientific scrutiny. Regenerative agriculture is a broad term that encompasses a number of practices that have been proven to help ecosystems regenerate. While there is no scientific consensus on the exact definition, most scholars agree that it involves “a suite of management practices that improve or maintain soil organic matter and hence the biophysical functioning of food production systems” (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). The practices include cover cropping, reduced or zero tillage, diversified rotations, compost application, agroforestry, and rotational grazing. At the same time, the impreciseness of the definition has contributed to the criticism of the movement, with some researchers arguing that it has been co-opted by marketers to greenwash their products (Giller et al., 2021). This review will attempt to examine the literature on small-scale regenerative farming practices to determine their viability. Small-scale farms are uniquely positioned to be important contributors to global food security. They represent a major food production source in the Global South (Lowder et al., 2016). Moreover, many small farms use diverse, resilient systems that are similar to the principles of regenerative agriculture. Some researchers have argued that small farms can be the first to adopt new techniques (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). At the same time, small-scale agricultural producers are more limited by financial and material constraints than larger operations can afford. There are also fewer economic opportunities for small farmers, who may have to take time to transition to a new system while experiencing decreased yields for a certain number of seasons. This review will analyze research literature on regenerative agriculture practices on small farms, focusing on their impact on the local ecology, socioeconomics, and barriers to adoption. The first part of the review will address studies that have tested the effectiveness of regenerative agriculture practices at improving carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and crop yield. The second part will consider the effects on the local economy and knowledge base. Finally, the third section will identify factors that influence the choice to adopt discussed practices and highlight the areas where research is needed. Word count: 400

# Introduction: Small-Scale Regenerative Agriculture Literature The advances of industrial agriculture over the past century include how at the same time its negative consequences on the environment have been finally recognized. Soil erosion, decrease in organic matter and biodiversity, contamination of fresh water, and greenhouse gas emissions in agricultural production are among the drivers for researchers and practitioners to seek for alternatives in the processes of food production (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). Regenerative agriculture is one of the most successful approaches in reducing damage and restoring degraded ecosystems. The research about regenerative agriculture mainly involves small-scale use of regenerative approaches on the farms and gardens up to 20 hectares in size. To date, there is no universal definition of regenerative agriculture used in publications. Generally, it can be referred to as a set of practices oriented to building the soil quality, increasing biodiversity, improving water circulation and resilience of the farm (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). Some practices of regenerative agriculture are cover cropping, reduced or no-tillage growing, diversified crop rotation, composting, agroforestry, grazing management. Various interpretations of regenerative agriculture lead to ambiguity, and it causes some issues because it could become simply a brand name promoting itself without having real scientific background (Giller et al., 2021). Small farms and smallholders produce many types of food around the globe, particularly in developing countries (Lowder et al., 2016), allowing for diversified and labor-intensive practices combining different approaches in regenerative agriculture. Nevertheless, it is important to understand that small-scale producers face a number of limitations, such as lack of investment and poor land rights, which might hinder their further activity. The current review of literature presents the results of two previously mentioned themes of the research, with ecological results of the impact discussed as to soil carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and yield reliability among other aspects being followed with the socioeconomic characteristics and obstacles on the way of adoption of regenerative approaches by small producers.

Introduction: The Study of Small-Scale Regenerative Agriculture as Described in the Literature Over the course of the last hundred years, industrial agriculture has been able to generate impressive increases in the quantity of food produced, yet unfortunately, these increases have come at an environmental cost. Soil degradation through erosion, organic matter loss in soils, declines in biodiversity, contaminates fresh water sources, and contributes to greenhouse gases have all resulted in efforts by both researchers and practitioners to develop alternative ways of producing food. One model being developed includes the use of regenerative agriculture. In addition to reducing negative impacts associated with agriculture, regenerative agriculture is intended to help restore ecosystems that were previously degraded. The literature is beginning to focus on how small-scale farming can implement regenerative practices. As described above, however, there is currently limited data available. There is no one universally accepted definition of regenerative agriculture. Researchers describe regenerative agriculture as a series of agricultural practices focused on restoring ecosystem services including soil health, biodiversity, and water cycling while increasing the overall resilience of farms. Practices commonly referred to as "regenerative" include cover crops, reduced or zero tillage practices, diversified crop rotations, using compost materials, integrating trees into farming operations (agroforestry) and managing pasture through rotational grazing. There is some disagreement among scholars about the terminology, with some suggesting that "regenerative" may become too loosely defined as a label used by farmers to promote their products rather than a scientifically based approach to measuring ecological outcomes (Giller et al., 2021). The need for objective analysis of the subject area becomes even more important when considering the potential applications of "regenerative." Small-scale farming systems represent a unique subset of the broader regenerative discussion. While many smallholder farms in the Global South continue to provide a large percentage of global food supplies (Lowder et al., 2016), and are likely to continue doing so for the foreseeable future, small-scale producers are already using diverse management techniques (such as polyculture and intensive labor) that closely match those advocated for under regenerative. Proponents suggest that small-scale producers will be better equipped to adapt to new approaches because of their ability to observe their local environment closely and incorporate traditional knowledge related to the natural environment. At the same time, small-scale producers also experience many challenges that could affect their ability to adopt regenerative practices or maintain their economic viability during times of transition. These include financial limitations, insecurity regarding land ownership/tenure, limited opportunities for accessing markets, and higher labor requirements. This paper provides a synthesis of current scientific understanding of small-scale regenerative agriculture across three themes: ecological results, social/economic aspects, and impediments to adoption. First, we examined the extent to which small-scale regenerative agriculture is capable of providing ecological benefits related to carbon sequestered in soils, biodiversity, and yields. Second, we considered the economic viability of small-scale regenerative agriculture through examining profitability, livelihoods, and knowledge networks formed within communities. Third, we assessed institutional and structural influences affecting the implementation of regenerative practices. Through evaluating existing research on small-scale regenerative agriculture, this study identifies several limitations related to methodology and future research needs – particularly, few long-term studies exist specifically designed to examine the effects of adopting regenerative practices at various scales.

# Introduction: Small Scale Regenerative Agriculture in Literature Since the dawn of industrial agriculture our ability to produce food has grown substantially. Unfortunately many ecological effects have come from this process. Loss of topsoil and organic material, decline in biodiversity and pollution of fresh water sources and the environment are some issues caused by industrial agriculture (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). Agriculture is also contributing to global warming so alternate forms of agriculture have become more popular. One type that has been gaining popularity is regenerative agriculture. This style of farming aims to fix many of the problems mentioned above. There have been some studies done on regenerative agriculture on smaller farms of less than twenty hectares. Regenerative agriculture has not one specific definition but is described as farming practices that aim to achieve specific results. These results can range from healthier soils and increased biodiversity to increasing the hydrological cycle. Some of these methods include using cover crops, no/low tillage methods, diverse crop rotation, composting and planting trees and using rotational grazing. Many have argued about the definition of regenerative agriculture. Since there isn't a strict definition it can be considered misleading (Giller et al., 2021). Due to these claims more research needs to be completed to see the true benefits of regenerative agriculture. Many people grow their food on small plots of land or farms. The majority of the worlds food is actually produced by small holders (Lowder et al., 2016). Some argue that these farmers will be able to implement regenerative practices easier and provide the most effective form of regenerative agriculture. Because they can work with these techniques more efficiently on smaller plots of land. Small holders can run into problems as well when trying to use these techniques. Not having the money to do certain techniques, not having security over their land or even access to certain markets. In this paper we will be going over many different types of literature on small scale regenerative agriculture. Some we will be discussing is if the methods are allowing for increased carbon sequestration in soils and biodiversity. We will also discuss profitability and if there are benefits to social aspects of regenerative practices. At the end of this review we will cover some barriers that may stop someone from implementing these methods.

# Introduction: Small-Scale Regenerative Agriculture in the Literature Modern industrial agriculture has proven exceptionally productive throughout the last century but has also been shown to impose heavy burdens on the environment in the form of soil erosion, loss of organic matter, biodiversity depletion, pollution of fresh water, and significant greenhouse gas emissions by the sector itself (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). Thus, researchers and practitioners have sought alternatives to the current model of agricultural production, and one of the most popular proposals is regenerative agriculture. The approach, which is believed to help not only mitigate the negative effects but actively improve ecosystem functioning, gained significant interest as an application to farms and market gardens of less than twenty hectares. Although literature on the topic exists, it is still rather fragmented. There are no unified definitions of regenerative agriculture, but scholars usually characterize it as a range of practices, which are aimed at improving soil condition, biodiversity, water cycle, and resilience of agricultural systems (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). Cover crops, no-tillage, diversified crop rotation, composting, agroforestry, and rotational grazing are some of the practices usually associated with regenerative farming. Despite this diversity of definitions, there are discussions regarding their implications for actual environmental changes (Giller et al., 2021). Hence, empirical research is vital. Small-scale farms and holders have a special place in this context. The sector makes up a considerable portion of global food production, especially in the Global South (Lowder et al., 2016), while it is characterized by diversified and labor-intensive practices, which may coincide with regenerative agricultural practices. Supporters of regenerative agriculture state that such farms can apply those practices more flexibly, taking into account local conditions and combining them with traditional ecological knowledge. On the other hand, they lack financial resources, may suffer from insecure land ownership, have a limited access to markets, and require significant amount of labor. This literature review covers empirical researches devoted to small-scale regenerative agriculture and addresses three major topics: ecological outcomes, socioeconomic aspects, and barriers to adoption. It considers evidence on soil carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and yields. Then it covers profitability, livelihoods, and community knowledge networks. Finally, it discusses institutional and structural factors that affect adoption rates. By analyzing the methodological shortcomings and gaps in research, particularly the lack of long-term studies in a proper scale, the paper tries to identify the existing knowledge, controversies, and directions of future researches. **Word count: ~400**

The concept, vision and practices of small-scale regenerative farming are presented in literature.A vision, concept and practices of small-scale regenrative farming are discussed in literature. Although industrial agriculture has achieved marvelous productivity gains in the last 100 years, it is now a fact that it is ecologically costly. The events of soil erosion, reduction in organic-matter content, biodiversity loss, pollution of fresh water and agricultural contribution to greenhouse gas emissions have spurred researchers and practitioners to look for alternative models of food production (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). Of these, regenerative agriculture has come to the fore as a key approach, not just for mitigating damage, but also for actively recovering degraded ecosystems. It has gained attention in scientific research, particularly in its use at small scale, on farms or market gardens, where its use is not usually extensive, typically less than 20ha. There is no one definitive definition of what Regenerative Agriculture is. However, scholars generally recognize it as a collection of output-focused practices focused on restoring soil health, biodiversity, water cycles and farm resilience (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). Some the more common practices include cover cropping, tillage elimination or reduced tillage, crop diversification, composting, agroforestry and controlled rotational grazing. This definitional ambiguity has sparked discussions, with some critics warning that it may end up being a marketing term without clear ecological impacts (Giller et al., 2021). This is of particular importance when it comes to solid empirical examination, which helps to allay any such fears. In this discussion small-scale systems have a unique place. Small farmers and smallholders produce a significant proportion of the food we need in the world, especially in the Global South (Lowder et al., 2016), and often use diversified and labour intensive approaches that are natural to regenerative approaches. It is claimed that they can be more flexible and better connected with local conditions and fuse the traditional knowledge and philosophy in such farms. Small-scale producers also have difficulties, such as lower capital availability, insecure land tenure, restricted market access, and high labor requirements, that could affect their decision to adopt or their economic viability in transition. This review aims to integrate current research on small scale regenerative agriculture into three themes: ecological, socioeconomic and adoption barriers. Firstly, it reviews the evidence on soil carbon sequestration, biodiversity and yield performance. It subsequently takes into account profitability, livelihoods as well as networks of community knowledge. Lastly, it assesses institutional and structuring conditions affecting uptake. The review sets out to highlight what is known and what remains controversial as well as identifying methodological errors and research gaps to direct future study, specifically, what is missing in long-term, scale-specific studies. **Word count: ~400**

Introduction : The Field of Regenerative Agriculture at a Global Scale Industrial agriculture has provided unprecedented productivity gains over the last century, but its ecological costs are becoming ever more widely recognized. Thus, immediate challenges such as soil erosion, declining organic matter, biodiversity loss, freshwater contamination and agriculture's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007) have encouraged researchers and practitioners to explore alternative models of food production. Regenerative agriculture has already appeared amongst these as a prominent framework, one which aims to make things better, restoring degraded ecosystems instead of only preventing the potential harm. At small scales, on farms and market gardens normally less than twenty hectares in coverage, it has received increasing research interest but the evidence base is patchy. There is no single, universally accepted standard definition of regenerative agriculture. The use of the terms ‘regenerative agriculture’ is well described as a practice-oriented bundle whose outcomes pursue rebuilding soil health, improving water cycles and biodiversity, and increasing resilience from the farm (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). It includes practices such as cover cropping, reduced or no-till cultivation, diversified rotations, composting and agroforestry or managed rotational grazing. This ambiguity in the definition has aroused some debate, with critics warning that this term may become a mere marketing label divorced from quantifiable ecological results (Giller et al. 2021). This makes rigorous empirical review particularly important. It is in this context that small-scale systems occupy a unique position. Both smallholders and small farms contribute a sizable proportion of food produced globally (Lowder et al., 2016) - i.e. in the Global South, for many these methods can often depend on diversified, labour-intensive approaches which coincide with regenerative principles by default. Supporters maintain they can create much more regenerative practice with the benefits of being able to adapt, have close observation in different locations and obtaining further inputs from traditional ecological knowledge. Despite the benefits, small-scale producers are also contained by the availability of capital, security of land holdings, market access and high labor demands that may restrict adoption or render them economically unviable at transition phases. This review synthesises research on smallholder regenerative agriculture across three themes: ecological consequences, socio-economic aspects and constrains to strategic direction. The analysis is conducted firstly by testing soil carbon sequestration, biodiversity and yield performance. Next comes a discussion of profit, ways of living and local networks for sharing knowledge. It concludes by discussing the institutional and structural factors that are influencing uptake. The review highlights methodological weaknesses and identifies research gaps including a lack of long-term, scale-specific studies in pursuit of clarifying what is known, what remains contested and where future work should be focused. Word count: ~400

# The literature demonstrates small-scale regenerative agriculture. Industrial agriculture has made great increase in productivity in the last hundred years, although now it is widely recognised. Soil erosion, declining organic matter, loss of biodiversity and fresh water pollution due to agriculture and greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture are leading researchers and practitioners to search for alternative models of food production (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). The regenerative agriculture is one of the foremost approach that promises both to reduce damage and to restore degraded system. Although it is relatively new, scholarly interest has been rising in the use of micro-on-farm-processing as well as on-market gardens. However, the evidence base is piecemeal and thin, as of now. There is no widely accepted definition of regenerative agriculture. Academics typically characterize it as a suite of practices that strive for outcomes that restore soil health, improve biodiversity, enhance water cycles and make farms more resilient (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). The most mentioned practices are cover cropping, reduced or no-till cultivation, diversified rotations, composting, agroforestry and managed rotational grazing. The above definition has given rise to debates within the sector, with sceptics warning that it could become a marketing label, devoid of verifiable ecological outcomes (Giller et al., 2021). It is important to have an empirical review. Small systems occupy a special place in the discourse. According to Lowder et al. (2016),.Smallholders and small farms produce a substantial share of the world’s food, particularly in the Global South, and often use diversified, labour-intensive methods that fit quite naturally within a regenerative framework. Supporters claim that these farms can implement regenerative practices with enhanced flexibility, continuous vigilance over physical realities, and with a stronger infusion of TEK. Nevertheless, small producers have their own constraints. These include limited capital, insecure land tenure, limited market access, and high labor demands. All of these constraints may hamper adoption, or make them economically unviable during transitions. This review brings together existing studies of smallscale regenerative agriculture in three different areas ecological outcomes, social economic context and barriers to adoption. First, it considers the evidence for soil carbon sequestration, biodiversity and yield It studies next profitableness, livelihoods and community knowledge networks. It assesses structural and institutional factors shaping uptake. Through the identification of methodological limitations and gaps in research, especially the absence of long-term, scale-specific research, the review aims to clarify what is known, what is contentious and where future research should take place. **Could you clarify your request?**

Small-Scale Regenerative Agriculture in the Literature Although industrial agriculture has achieved tremendous productivity increases during the past century, its environmental costs are becoming well-documented. Concern over soil erosion, loss of organic matter and biodiversity, contamination of freshwater resources (Godfray et al., 2010) and agriculture's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions have spurred research and practice focused on alternative food production models (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). Of these, regenerative agriculture is widely recognised as a more comprehensive framework that not only seeks to minimise harm but also actively restore damaged ecosystems. In particular its application at small scales, on farms and market gardens usually under twenty hectares has received increasing academic attention and although the evidence base is still scattered. There is no widely accepted definition for regenerative agriculture. Academics usually define it as a number of outcome-based practices designed to restore soil health, increase biodiversity, improve water cycles and enhance farm resilience (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). Cover cropping, reduced and zero tillage cultivation practices, more diverse rotations, composting of manure and other materials for soil fertility improvements, agroforestry including the use of tree crops as windbreaks in farmland areas and managed rotational grazing are often cited. The vagueness of this definition has also led to controversy, with critics of the use of this term noting a risk that it may become an empty marketing slogan over time and fail to deliver any tangible environmental impact (Giller et al., 2021). This makes strict empirical evaluation all the more imperative with respect to such worries. Because small-scale systems sit at a unique juncture in this conversation. There is lot of food, especially in the Global South (Lowder et al., 2016), that is produced by smallholders and small farms using diversified, labour-intensive methods that emerge naturally from principles aligned to regenerative practices. Supporters say these farms should also be more flexible in terms of how they can do regenerative practices, keep closer tabs on local growing conditions, and tap into traditional ecological knowledge. Small-scale producers with capital-poor systems are also constrained in many ways, such as insecure land tenure system; tight budget constraint to maintain farm and livestock resources; lack of access to markets; and labor intensive approaches that lead to limited adoption or economic benefits during transitioning periods from moubarak. This review quantifies evidence from the existing literature about key themes of small-scale regenerative agriculture within three broad research areas: ecological outcomes, socioeconomic dimensions, and barriers to adoption. The initial focus is on the evidence supporting soil carbon storage, biodiversity and yield performance. From there, it moves on to looking at profitability, livelihoods and community knowledge networks. Finally, it reviews institutional and structural factors that influence uptake. The review identifies methodological limitations and research gaps, especially the absence of long-term, scale dependent studies, in order to clarify what is known, what remains contentious and where future examination should be focused. Word count: ~400

# Introduction: Small-Scale Regenerative Agriculture in the Literature Industrial agriculture has achieved impressive productivity gains in the last century, but the environmental impacts are now much studied. Soil erosion, declining soil organic matter, loss of biodiversity, freshwater pollution, and agriculture's role in greenhouse emissions have led scholars and practitioners to examine alternative food production models (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). Regenerative agriculture stands out as one such model that seeks not only to avoid negative impacts but to promote positive ones, and the small-scale application of regenerative principles and practices to farms and market gardens less than twenty hectares in size has been capturing the attention of researchers, despite a confusing evidence base. There is no consensus about what defining regenerative agriculture practices might look like. Academic literature characterizes it more as a set of outcomes-oriented actions that collectively regenerate soil health, biodiversity, water cycles and farm resilience (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). In practice, regenerative practices are often reported as cover cropping, no-till or reduced tillage, diverse crop rotations, compost application, agroforestry and managed rotational grazing. This lack of clarity around definition has led to criticism that the term is becoming a meaningless marketing catchphrase that is not linked to real measurable changes (Giller et al., 2021). These concerns underscore the value of systematic empirical analysis. Small systems are an important part of this picture. Smallholders and small farms contribute a significant proportion of the world's food, especially in the Global South (Lowder et al., 2016), and they tend to use diverse, labor-intensive systems that are in many ways "built for" regenerative farming. There is an argument to be made that small farms may more easily adopt regenerative systems due to their ability to make different choices in the field, observe more closely, and draw on traditional ecological knowledge. However, small scale producers are also limited in many ways, including lower capital levels, uncertain land tenure, and restrictions in access to markets, which may limit profitability or ability to adopt systems or transition. Introduction to this synthesis This review aims to build understanding of smallholder regenerative agriculture through synthesising existing evidence on these farms in three areas: ecological impacts, socio-economic impacts, and adoption barriers. Here we explore the evidence available for soil carbon, biodiversity, and yields. The next section considers the socio-economic literature on profitability, livelihoods, and local knowledge networks. We then look at the institutional and structural factors influencing adoption. This synthesis considers the limitations of evidence, gaps, and priorities for further research, including the issue of scale and long-term field experiments. Word count: ~400

# Introduction: Small-Scale Regenerative Agriculture in the Literature Over the last hundred years, industrial agriculture has achieved significant improvements in productivity, but the ecological consequences of this approach are now well recorded. Researchers and practitioners have been prompted by problems such as soil erosion, a decline in organic matter, loss of biodiversity, contamination of fresh water, and agriculture's role in producing greenhouse gases to look for other models of food production (Foley et al., 2011; Montgomery, 2007). Of these, regenerative agriculture has become a leading framework, offering the possibility not only of reducing damage but also of actively restoring degraded ecosystems. There is increasing scholarly interest in its use on a small scale, for example on farms and market gardens generally covering less than twenty hectares, although the body of evidence is still fragmented. There is no single, widely accepted definition of regenerative agriculture. Most scholars define it as a collection of practice-based approaches which are focused on restoring soil health, increasing biodiversity, improving water cycles, and boosting the resilience of farms (Newton et al., 2020; Schreefel et al., 2020). The practices frequently mentioned are cover cropping, reduced or no-till cultivation, diversified crop rotations, composting, agroforestry, and managed rotational grazing. This lack of a clear definition has led to controversy, with critics warning that the term could end up being used merely as a marketing label separated from actual ecological results (Giller et al., 2021). Because of these concerns, a careful empirical examination is particularly important. Small-scale systems have a special place in this account. Smallholders and small farms account for a large portion of the world's food production, especially in the Global South (Lowder et al., 2016), and they generally use diversified, labor-intensive techniques which correspond well with regenerative principles. It is claimed that these farms can put into practice regenerative methods with more flexibility, by closely observing local conditions and by incorporating traditional ecological knowledge. On the other hand, small-scale producers also encounter limitations such as small amounts of capital, insecure rights to the land, restricted access to markets, and high labor requirements, all of which may obstruct the adoption of such practices or decrease their economic viability during the transition phase. The review looks at the current research into small-scale regenerative agriculture from three thematic perspectives: ecological outcomes, socioeconomic aspects, and the barriers to adoption. It begins by looking at the evidence regarding soil carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and yield performance. It then looks at profitability, livelihoods, and community knowledge networks. Finally, it assesses the institutional and structural factors that affect the uptake of such practices. By highlighting the methodological limitations and research gaps, especially the lack of long-term and scale-specific studies, the review seeks to make clear what is known, what is still in dispute, and where further research should be focused. **Word count: ~400**